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OP THE 

PUNJAB OIL I^GION. 

By BENJAMIN SMITH LYMAN, 

MINING ENGINEEE, 


No. 13S SOUTH FIFTH STREET, 

PHILADELPHIA. 











TRANSACTIONS 

OF TUE 

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. 


ARTICLE I. 

TOPOGRAPHY OF THE PUNJAB OIL REGION. 
BY BENJAMIN SMITH LYMAN. 

Bead January 19, 1872, 


I. 

Situation. 


IV. Rock Groups. 

II. 

General Lay of the Land. 


V. Useful Minerals. 

in. 

Special Features. 


1. 

Oil. 


1. General Height. 


2, 

Salt. 


2. Character of the Hills. 


3. 

Plaster. 


a. Square edged. 


4. 

Sulphur. 


h. Sharp edged. 


VI. Map. 



c. Blunt edged. 


5. 

Alum. 


3. Change of shape with time. 


6. 

Saltpetre. 


4. Mode of cutting. 


7. 

Coal. 


a. Rain. 


8. 

Gold. 


b. Rivers. 


9. 

Copper. 


c. Sea. 

» 

10. 

Iron. 


d. Frost, e. Ice. 


11. 

Lead. 







I. -SITUATION. 

The Punjab oil region is in the corner between Cashmere and Cabul, and lies wholly 
between north latitude 32'’ 31', and 33"* 47', and east longitude (from Greenwich) 71° 18', 
and 13° 5'; a nearly square space about a hundred miles long east and west, by ninety 
miles wide, north and south. 

Just inside the northeast corner of this square is Rawul Pindee, the largest town of 
the region, with about twenty thousand inhabitants ; just inside the southeast corner is 
Pind Uadun Khan, a town of about twelve thousand inhabitants ; and just inside the 
southwest corner is the ancient uninhabited ruin of a walled town, now called Kafir Kot. 
Just within the northwest edge of the region, and less than twenty miles from its eastern 
edge, stands the little village of Shah kee Dheree, on the site of the ancient capital 
TRANS. AM. PHIL. SOC.-YOL. XV. A. 









2 


TOPOGRAPHY OF THE 



Taxila, Avhere the king Taxiles hospitably entertained Alexander the Great. The 
small town of Attok, where Alexander crossed the Indus into India, is only ten miles 
north of the middle of the northern edge of the square. The famous Muneekyala Tope, 
built by king Kanishka, about the Christian Era, to mark the spot where Booddha in 
compassion gave his own flesh to satisfy the hunger of a starving tiger, stands a little 
outside the square, fifteen miles southeast of Bawul Pindee. 

The River Indus enters the square about the middle of the northern edge, and leaves 
it at the southwest corner. The Jhelum River (the “ fabulosus Ilydaspes ” of the 
ancients), one of the five rivers that give its name to the Punjab, flows across the south¬ 
east corner, past Pind Dadun Khan, southwesterly towards the Indus. The centre of 
the region is drained by the Sohan, which rises near Rawul Pindee, andfloAvs west south¬ 
west to the Indus. 

The region lies, then, mostly between the Indus and Jhelum, in what is called the 
Sind Sagur.Doab (two rivers), and it is mainly in the mountainous or hilly part (Koh- 
istan) of the Doab. 

II.— GENERAL LAY OF THE LAND. 

The wide, flat plain of the lower Indus skirts the southern edge of the region, but 
the rest (within the Doab) is filled by a someAvhat uneA'en table land, about 750 feet 
higher than that plain, Avith the Salt Range on the south in a very open vee, pointing 
southAvesterly, and long armed on the east, and Avith the Choor Hills and a spur of the 
Himalayas on the north, nearly parallel to the Salt range, but in a still more open 
curve, and Avith two or three much shorter parallel mountains betAveen those tAvo main 
ranges. 

This spur ol' the Himalayas (4,000 feet high above the sea) just enters the northeast 
comer of the region, dies doAvn into the plains (about 1,900 feet aboA'e the sea) for a dozen 
miles, and is continued Avesterly in the Choor Hills (up to 3,500 feet in height) as far 
as to the Indus, folloAved by a little studied region of higher mountains, Avest of the river. 
The vSalt Range, Avith tAvo ridges 3,000, or eA en at one point 5,000 feet high and a 
valley betAveen of half a dozen miles Avide and some 2,500 feet high, passes just 
north of Pind Dadun Khan, Avest and southwesterly, to the southern edge of the region, 
and then turns nortliAvest Avith a single ridge, and afteiwards Avith several ridges, to 
the Indus, folloAved by high mountains Avest of the river. 

The country betAveen the Choor Hills and the Salt Range is a comparatively leA'el 
one, about fifteen hundred feet above the sea. A dozen miles soutliAvest of RaAvul Pindee, 
the mountain called Khairee Moorut rises aboA^e the plain, and runs soutliAvest for fifteen 
or tAventy miles, reaching a height of over 3,000 feet. There are also, here and there, 
a feAV-loAver hills in the plains. 


PUNJAB OIL REGION, 


3 


On the south the Salt Kange falls abruptly to a very level plain that spreads far and 
wide at about 750 feet above the sea. In the very southwesternmost corner of the 
region the mountains west of the Indus come close to it at Kafir Kot, and run southerly 
with a double ridge, and rise to a height of more than 2,000 feet above the sea. 

The Indus flows with a swift current through a narrow, rocky channel (100 to 500 
yards wide) with high banks in the country above the Salt Range, but on reaching the 
plain below (at Kalabagh) spreads out into many wide channels, ■with low banks and 
irregular islands, and changes its course from time to time. The river falls between 
Attok and Kalabagh (110 miles) about two feet a mile; for 350 miles below Kalabagh 
about eight inches a mile. The Jhelnm likewise spreads out into many channels in the 
low country. 

As the climate affects the topography, it must be remarked that almost all the rain of 
the year takes place, in this region, within two or three months of the summer, which 
are preceded by two or three months of very hot, dry weather, with the thermometer 
sometimes at 120° F. in the shade. Owung to the summer rains and the melting of 
snow in the Himalayas and other very high mountains, there are great floods, and the 
Indus rises about fifty feet in the narrow channel above Kalabagh ; but in the wide 
channels below, about eight or nine feet, spreading out into broad lakes. The stream 
of the Sohan, and other smaller rivers is, in the dry season, a mere thread in the 
midst of a waste of sand sometimes a mile or more wide, which it wholly covers in the 
rainy season. Of course many of the smallest rivers are quite dry before the rains be¬ 
gin. The streams that flow down the southern face of the Salt Range almost all dry 
up in the great heat of the low country, and are lost in the sand before reaching the 
great rivers. 

In the valley on top of the Salt Range is a lake. Son Sukesur Kuhar, that has no outlet 
and is salt. On the northern side is another salt lake, Kullur Knhar, which has, how¬ 
ever, an outlet in high water, and is less salt than the other. 

III.— SPECIAL FEATURES. 

In looking into the topography of parts of the region, the chief things to notice will 
be (1) their general height, (2) the character of the hills as affected by the steepness 
of dip of the rocks, (3) the modification of this character with time, and (4) the mode of 
cutting out the valleys. 

1. The most striking feature in the topography of any region is the general difference 
of height of the different districts. We have, for example, in the region in question, 
mountain lands, such as the Salt Range, the Choor Hills, the Himalaya Spur, and 
Khairee Moorut; table land, such as the central part of the region; and low land, 
such as the plain south of the Salt Range. 


4 


TOPOGRAPHY OF THE 


The causes of such present differences of height are : the height to which the rocks 
have been raised to begin with; the lengtli of time that they have been wearing away ; 
and the general ease with which they wear away, which depends on their general 
hardness, firmness, solubility or permeability. The final result of the wearing away; 
that is going on all over the land is, of course, to bring every tiling to a dead level, 
and that the level of the sea. It might therefore be that land as high as the Koh- 
istan once stood south of the Salt Range, and has in the course of many ages been 
worn down to a low, fiat plain; as in the course of time the Kohistan must be, if it 
should never be pushed upward again. But the low land, south of the Salt Range, 
is still high enough above the sea to show by unequal wearing away harder ribs of 
rock, if it had them ; and it would seem to be pretty uniformly soft to some depth, as 
if not long enough deposited to become very hard. It is probable therefore that since 
the deposit of its present upper surface it has never been raised so high as the Kohis¬ 
tan, though this surface may rest upon a floor of much older rocks below, that may be 
the remnant of land as hi"h as the Kohistan. 

The whole of the Kohistan, however, seems to have been raised about the same time 
and to about the same height; and its differences of level come in a great measure from 
the relative ease with which its rocks have been worn away, chiefly from their relative 
hardness. But the table land has been in general wearing away for a much less time 
than the mountain land, because it is made up of newer rocks that were formed in the 
bed of what was perhaps a great lake in the older rocks that make up the mountains. 
The newer rocks, then, take the place of a great hollow in softer rocks of the older forma¬ 
tion, a hollow that would have been worn still deeper but for the protection that has 
been afforded by the covering. 

This consideration enables some conclusions to be drawn as to the geology from the 
mere topography. The Salt range is formed chiefly of a thick lime rock (the nummulitic) 
and the softer rocks that it covers ; and the Choor Hills Range consists of a similar 
probably the same lime rock ; and Khairee Moorut most likely of the same; in short 
all the high mountain land of the region seems to be caused by the presence of this thick 
lime rock, and it is probable that wherever it once rose above the present level of 
the country it has left hills or mountains to mark its place. Now, the dip on the northern 
side of the Salt Range is northerly, and it is pretty certain therefore that the Southern 
dip of the Choor Hills must be southerly; for, if this were northerly, the lime rock must 
have risen to the surface somewhere between the two ranges, and have left a ridge of rocks 
dipping southerly. Khairee Moorut is too short to represent so long a ridge as this must 
have been, and is probably a small saddle of the lime rock rising above the table land. 
The rocks, then, south of the Choor Hills, as at Gunda, must rest upon the lime rock of 


PUNJAB OIL REGION. 


5 


those hills, however much steep and even somewhat reversed dips may make the contrary 
seem probable. The apparent dips did indeed mislead me at first. But if the Choor 
Hill lime rock lies really above the Gunda rocks, then both must be above the Salt Bange 
Nummulitic lime rock; and this is possibly so. 

2. Looking closer than at the mere height of the land, the forms of its surface have 
three different characters according as the rocks [a) lie level, or (b) dip steeply, or (c) 
gently. 

a. The central table land of the region is mainly made up of rocks of quite late age, 
perhaps old alluvium, possibly passing without break into Siwalik (Miocene) rocks below. 
These rocks lie nearly or quite level, and this fact here, as in other regions, gives rise to 
characteristic forms. The general slope of the country is comparatively level, and the 
ground is generally flat; but near the streams, high vertical cliffs are common, connecting 
the flat tables above with the flat v alleys below. This might be called square-edged topo¬ 
graphy. The rocks are generally pretty soft or tender, some of them especially so; and 
the growth of a narrow gully into a good sized valley is quite rapid. 

h. The surface of this part of the region is not, however, exclusively of this square-edged 
character, for it is somewhat affected by the older rocks below, which rise to the light in 
many places both in the valleys and on the higher lands. These rocks are of nummiditic 
age and are generally harder and firmer than those above, and often remain standing 
where they may have once been covered by them. In the northern part of the region the 
lower rocks generally have also a steep dip, and are folded into numerous sharp saddles and 
basins. This makes it not uncommon here for harder layers of rock to stand up like a 
knife edge, so sharp, in fact, that some of the Cheerpar hills, 150 feet or more in height 
above the plains, are so thin as to have holes and long horizontal slits quite through them 
at some distance from the top. Such topography might be called sharp-edged. Owing 
to the great exposure of the softer layers to the falling rain, they have been much worn 
away, so as to leave the harder ribs standing out, and the topography has a skeleton-like, 
bony look. This fact often enables the geological structure to be seen very easily from 
the mere topography, and the basins and saddles to be made out from the map. The 
topography has this sharp-edged character, in places where the streams have cnt down to 
the lower rocks, as far south at least as the Sohan Biver. It is shown by the little, sharp, 
narrow, parallel valleys of the small streams that empty into the Sohan on the north. It 
is probable that the same sharp folding of the lower rocks continues for some distance 
south of the Sohan; but the map shows no such sharp-edged topography, owing no 
doubt to the thick covering of the newer rocks above, as far as to the Salt Bange. 

c. In the Salt Bange part of the region, the nummulitic rocks rise very high, generally 
A. F. S.-VOL. XV. B. 


TOPOGRAPHY OF THE 


in a double saddle with a small basin between, but have commonly pretty gentle dips^ 
especially towards the north. Sometimes the dip is so gentle as to give rise to something 
like the square-edged topography already noticed; for example, at Chinnoor, hlungooch 
and Dooma. But the dip is often too steep for this, and the topography is then blunt- 
edged in character, as in the hills northeast of the Salt Range at Jaba near Kalabagh and many 
parts of the Salt Range itself. There are even in this case often short vertical cliffs, 
but the shape of the land above them is steeper than where the rocks lie level, though 
less steep than where the rocks dip very steeply. At Aluggud there is a very uni¬ 
form dip of about 25°, and a nearly corresponding steepness to the hill on one side; but 
certain soft thick layers of clay or shales are so protected by harder layers of sand 
rock or lime rock as to form vertical walls on the other side of the hills. Had the dip 
been much steeper, the clay and shales would doubtless have been wholly waslied 
away to water level leaving the harder sand rock and lime rock layers standing, if these 
were thick enough to hold themselves up. 

3. The progress of the wearing away with time gives rise to varieties of these main 
topographical characters. The tendency is to bring the whole country finally to the level 
of the sea ; but progress towards this end is, of course, more rapid in the water courses 
than elsewhere. Little elevation above neighboring drainage levels by lessening the force 
of the streams makes the progress slower. 

We have, therefore, in a square edged district, first, flat land with crooked, meandering 
almost aimless streams, as shown in the low country south of the Salt Range and perhaps in 
some patches north of Nummul and elsewhere, as well as along some large streams. Next 
the country becomes uneven; and if the surface to some depth is uniformly soft, the land 
becomes rolling, as perhaps in some large patches north of the Salt Range ; if the surface 
is somewhat harder, it will so last and shelter the rocks below, as to give rise to long cliffs 
and gorges, as near Chinnoor, Hungooch and Dooma and elsewhere along the northern 
side of the Salt Range, and at Nursingpuhar and other places on the southern side. In 
the course of time, however, after the streams have cut down to their lowest level, these 
cliffs must recede farther and farther from the streams, though at length with great slow¬ 
ness, and finally the whole country becomes again a dead level, if it remain undisturbed 
long enough. 

But where the rivers, as in the higher country, flow among rocks that have a decided 
dip, their direction is of course much influenced by the strike of the rocks. It is very 
plain, for example, that the Sohan follows in general the strike of the lower (nummulitic) 
rocks; and the same may be said of many of the smaller streams, especially of the very 
striking series of small side streams of the northern feeders of the Sohan. 

In a district where the rocks dip gently, their basins, as they are wider than in one of 


PUNJAB OIL REGION. 


7 


steep clips, are likely to be longer also and less decidedly broken up by subordinate folds 
and the saddles between less broken up and crushed together. The valleys are therefore 
more likely to be long and the ridges unbroken; and in the course of time, after the first 
irregularity caused by the comparatively quick wearing down of the main channels to 
their lowest level, there becomes great uniformity in the shape of tlie valleys, long, narrow, 
and parallel, and in the crests of the mountains long and level. The valleys form ravines 
rather than gorges; for they are not extremely steep on both sides for any great distance. 
The mountains about Aluggud show these features well. Such mountains in wearing 
away to the 'final dead level will become more and more gently rounded ridges, the 
country will become more and more open, and at length quite fiat. 

Where the rocks, however, dip very steeply and have been much crushed together and 
overturned the small basins are more likely to vary the drainage of the large ones, there 
are more chances of cross breaks and numerous cleavage planes; so that the valleys are 
shorter and more irregular, and the mountains rise in peaks rather than in long crests. 
So it is in the spur of the Himalayas, in the Choor Hills and in the western end of the 
Salt Eange about Jaba near the Indus. In wearing away, such peaks may become more 
and more rounded, until they sink to the level of the valleys, and the country becomes 
flat. 

4. The topography is somewhat affected by the nature of the wearing agent, whether 
this be the wind, (a) the rain, (b) rivers, (c) the sea, (d) frost, or (e) ice. But no part of 
this region would seem to be affected materially by the wearing or carrying power of the 
wind, unless it be some very light, sandy portions of the low country south of the Salt 
Ilange. 

a. The rain of course falls equally on the hilltops and on the plains, and loosens more 
or less of the rocks or earth it falls on, according to their hardness, and carries the loosened 
particles with it to the streams and towards the sea, more or less according to the steep¬ 
ness of the surface. Where a harder bed covers a soft one, this will be, as already re¬ 
marked at Aluggud and elsewhere, cut to an upright wall around the edges of its shelter. 
The action of the rain is, then, that of washing. Its effect can be seen everywhere 
through the region. 

b. The action of rivers on the other hand is not merely that of washing, in the same 
way as rain, but of undermining; for a stream often washes away the bottom of a cliff, 
and lets the upper part fall by its own weight. It may then wash away the rubbish 
formed by the fall and continue its attack on the cliff. Such undermining may be seen in 
progress a quarter of a mile below the Burra Kutta Oil Springs, where the brook has 
formed at the bottom of the cliff a low cavern not yet deep enough to make the rocks 
above fall down. A stream that falls over a bed of rock will often, as is well known, 


8 


TOPOGRAPHY OF THE 


undermine it, especially if there be a softer layer of rock at the bottom of the fall. The 
undermined edge of the fall at length comes down, the rubbish is washed away, the 
undermining goes on again, and so a gorge is gradually formed below the fall. A gorge 
or pair of cliffs facing each other is, then, a mark of river action; and this is generally 
combined with the action of rain. Such a gorge is to he seen still forming on a small 
scale at the Chhota Kutta Oil Springs and a few hundred yards above them, although the 
greater part of the work was done long ago. Gorges formed in the same way are to be 
seen at Nursingpuhar and elsewhere along the southern face of the Salt Range; they 
have apparently been made by much larger streams than now flow through them. 

The Salt Range has in the western arm of its vee, near its point, at the village of 
Nummul, a right angled bay in its south-western face; and it looks as if this had once 
been the outlet of all the waters north of the range, and as if there had been an enormous 
Niagara here that had begun to cut a gorge below for itself, before the present gorge of 
the Indus at Kalabagh was cut. Perhaps the great amount of salt in thick layers in the 
mountain near Kalabagh by its readily dissolving and possibly letting the rocks above 
become undermined, hastened the completion of the gorge and gave it the start of the 
one at Nummul. 

c. The wearing action of the sea is almost wholly by undermining the headland of a 
coast. The waves dash against the shore and wear it into a cliff, undermine the cliff', the 
tidal currents carry off the rubbish that falls, the undermining goes on again, and the sea 
at last cuts the land down to its own level. But in bays the force of the waves is lessened 
the water is quieter, the earthy matters in the water drop more readily to the bottom, the 
rivers bring in such matter from the valley at the head of the bay, and this becomes silted 
up. A single long cliff or line of cliffs looking down on a wide plain is, then, the mark 
of sea cutting. The southern escarpment of the Salt Range, so abrupt and striking, 
gives the impression of a coast line formed by the sea ; and really seems to have been so 
formed when the low land to the south was under water, either salt or fresh, though per¬ 
haps a little rounded by the rains since then. 

d. The frost, as everybody knows, acts by freezing the water in the small cracks or 
pores of the rock, and so by expansion loosening particles or masses of rock or breaking 
them apart, and letting them fall, as soon, at least, as the ice that may still unite them 
melts away. Such loosened masses could only fall down a pretty steep slope. It may be 
that this action of the frost takes place sometimes, though rarely, in this region; but it 
cannot happen often in so hot a climate. 

e. For the same reason, there is no sign whatever of the action of ice or glaciers, with 
their grooving and polishing of the rocks by the pebbles and mud they push along, and 
with the heaps of rubbish that they leave behind when melted. 


PUNJAB OIL REGION. 


9 


It is plain from what has been said that, as the topography is so far from being acci¬ 
dental and is so thoroughly modified by the nature and position of the rocks according to 
simple laws, its careful study is of the greatest importance in making the geology clear; 
even if not quite so indispensable for the general geology of a large region as for the 
geological details of a small tract. A merely shaded or hachnred map shows some of the 
geological facts along with a part of the topography, but is very indefinite and imperfect 
and insufficient for both, as compared with a contour line map. Such work may some¬ 
times seem too laborious and time taking, hut is after all so necessary as to be worth the 
trouble. 

IV. ROCK GROUPS. 

The geology of the region or of large parts of it has been treated of by Dr. W. Jameson 
(Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1843), Dr. A. Fleming (Jour. As. Soc. Beng., 
1848 and 1853), Mr. W. Theobald, Jr. (J. A. S. B., 1854), Mr. A. M. Verchere (J. A. S. 
B., 1866—67); and as far as it relates to the oil has been discussed in my own “ General 
lleport on the Punjab Oil Lands, Lahore, 1870.” Mr. A. B. Wynne, of the Geological 
Survey of India, has spent the two last winters in exploring the Salt llange and mapping 
its geology, but beyond a paper or two on special places in the “ Records of the Geo¬ 
logical Surrey of India,” his observations have not yet been made public. To save the 
trouble of turning to those works it may be w^orth while to give here a short sketch of 
the geology, so far as known, aside from the structure, which has been already described. 

The old alluvial rocks that have been mentioned as covering much of the table land 
are of unknown thickness (more than fifty yards at any rate), and perhaps pass upward in 
some places without interruption into the newest alluvium or wash. It is also possible 
that in places they pass downward without interruption into the rocks that have been 
called Sivalik. 

We have then this general section of the rocks of the region : 

New, little disturbed rocks: Thickness. 

Alluvium, or wash. - unknown. 

Old Alluvium'? perhaps much more than ----- 150 feet. 

Older rocks, with more or less steep dips: 

Miocene! Greenish gray sand rock, shales and pebble rock and red 
and green clays (Sivalik'? Aluggud and table land north 
of Salt Range); by some called 10,000 feet, perhaps not 
more than - -- -- -- -- 3,000 feet 

Eocene. Gunda rocks; light brown and red sand rocks and shales 
with some grey lime rock and sliales (south of Choor Hills) 
with oil. - - - ----- 850 “ 

A. p, s. — VOL. XV. c. 


10 


TOPOGRAPHY OF THE 


Nummulitic lime rock (Jaba and Salt Eaiige generally) with oil. 1,100 feet. 
Mesozoic. Green sand rocks and shales, cherty lime rocks, and iron • 

stained sand rocks with bituminous shales; perhaps - 700 “ 

Carboniferous. Lime rock, grey sand rock and shales, calcareous sand 

rock and shales, about . _ - - - 1,800 “ 

Devonian. Eed variegated grits and clays with copper; greenish sand 
rocks and shales with grey dolomitic sand-rock; red 
sand and pebble rock ; and red marl with rock-salt and 
plaster, say - 2,850 “ 

10,450 feet. 

The three lower formations are in this region found only in the southern part of the 
Salt Range and about Kafir Kot; and this account of them is gathered from the older 
writers. But their statements disagree very much; and the age of different beds often 
seems to have been determined from quite a small number of their fossils. Mr. Wynne’s 
study of these formations has no doubt added much to what was learned about them 
nearly twenty years ago, and his report will perhaps change some of the estimates of 
thickness or of age. There would seem to be a good deal of variation in the beds from 
place to place within short distances. 

y. USEFUL MINERALS. 

The following useful minerals are found in the region in greater or less quantity :— 
(1) oil, (2) salt, (3) plaster, (4) sulphur, (5) alum, (6) saltpetre, (7) coal, (8) gold ; 
and in minute quantity ores of (9) copper, (10) iron, and (11) lead. 

1. Oil. —‘The oil has been bored upon at Gunda, and at first fifty gallons of it a day 
were pumped from the well; but the yield of course, grew quickly less (like the ordinates 
of a parabola), and after the whole amount had reached two thousand gallons (about five 
months) the daily yield was less than ten gallons. In the region, oil flows also at five 
other places from natural springs, from a gill to three quarts a day, and there are traces 
ol it at yet two other places, making eight in all. Asphalt, or dried oil, is found in small 
quantities at four of these places, and at four other places, at two in notable quantities. 
At most of the asphalt places there are traces of rock tar or asphalt melted in the heat of 
the sun; and at one of them (Aluggud) as much as 100 gallons. Besides these dozen 
places where oil or asphalt is found there are half a dozen places where there are small 
traces of one or the other, enough to attract notice in the minute examination of the 
country by its inhabitants. About half of all the places are in the north-eastern corner 
of the region ; about half' towards the south-western corner ; and one or two in the north¬ 
western corner towards the middle. 



PUNJAB OIL REGION. 


11 


The Aluggud oil (now dried to asphalt) seems to have come from rocks of carbonifer¬ 
ous age, to judge by their fossils, though other things would rather show that they were 
of later age. If they are carboniferous, then the nummulitic rocks are wmnting above 
them, and have thinned completely away from a thickness of 2,000 feet only thirty miles 
distant. This oil is also the only case of oil outside of the older tertiary rocks anywhere 
in the whole region. 

All the other oil springs or shows of oil in the southern part of the region are on the 
northern side of the Salt Range and in the nummulitic lime rock or close above it. The 
northern ones are either in the nummulitic lime rock of the Choor Hills, the same prob¬ 
ably as that of the Salt Range; or in the Gunda rocks (chiefly sand rocks) that lie south 
of them, also accompanied by nummulites. 

In every case the oil seems to come from a deposit of very small horizontal extent, 
sometimes only a few feet, seldom as much as a few hundred yards; only in one case, 
that of the Chhota Kutta and Burra Ivutta oil springs, near Jaba, does the deposit seem 
to extend as much as half a mile. Here, too, the oil comes from a thickness of about a 
hundred feet, and the natural springs yield at one place as much as three quarts a day. 
At all the other places the oil comes from a much smaller thickness of rock, from forty 
feet at Aluggud and twenty at Gunda and Punnoba downwards. Scarcely do any two 
oil springs come from the same bed of rock. 

The oil is dark green in color, and so heavy as to mark 25° of Beaume’s scale, or even 
less. The Gunda oil has been burned a little by the natives with a simple wick, resting 
on the side of an open dish; but the Punnoba oil is more inflammable, and needs a special 
tube for the wick, though the main opening of the dish or lamp may stay uncovered. The 
oil generally, however, has been little used for burning except at Punnoba; but has been 
sought for as a cure for the sore backs of camels. The asphalt was also highly prized 
forty years ago by the natives as medicine, taken in pills, especially for broken bones. It 
was carried far and wide, and was called “negro’s fat,” because it was generally believed 
to have dripped from the brain of a negro that had been hung up by the heels before a 
slow Are. 

It is perhaps needless to say that there is nothing whatever in the mode of occurrence 
of the Punjab oil, to uphold the chimerical belief that rock oil ever passes by distillation, 
emanation, or otherwise, from one set of rocks to another, that it originates in any differ¬ 
ent rocks from those in which it is found; and nothing to show that it has been formed 
by any other method than the very natural and sufficient one of the slow decomposition 
of organic matter, deposited along with the other materials of the rock. Neither is there 
anything to show that the oil has been driven by the upward pressure of water, from the 
lower parts of a bed of rock through its pores to a higher part of the same bed; on the 


12 


TOPOGRAPHY OF THE 


contrary, as the rocks near most of the oil springs dip pretty steeply, if such an action of 
water were possible, all the oil would long ago have been altogether forced out of the 
rock at the outcrop. Indeed, such an idea is quite inconsistent with the flict that even a 
slight amount of oiliness in the pores of a body is a complete bar to the entrance of water ; 
much less could water (without soap) scour the oil from one mass of rock and make it 
flow into another mass filled with moisture. If oil wells are more numerous in some 
regions along the tops of rock saddles, the reason is clear, that the oil-bearing bed lies too 
deep for boring conveniently elsewhere. 

Wild hopes have sometimes been entertained that a large amount of oil might by boring 
near the oil springs, be struck in some cavity below the oil-bearing bed; but it is safe to 
say that they are not justified by anything whatever, either in the Punjab or in any other 
part of the world, cither in the practical experience of oil boring or in the general laws of 
physics. 

2. Salt .—In the lower part of the Devonian rocks there are large deposits of salt from 
white to brick red in color, in layers of about two feet thick, separated by thin (half-inch) 
layers of red marl, amounting in all to a hundred feet or more. It is mined especially at 
Keora (in one place in a chamber thirty or forty feet wide and high), and at other places 
near Find Dadun Khan, and on both sides of the Indus near Kalabagh. There are other 
like deposits of salt, perhaps of the same age, west of the Indus, twenty-five miles north 
of Kalabagh. 

3. Plaster .—(lypsum is found in beds as much as thirteen feet thick or more, and 
in thin seams in the Devonian salt marl in the Salt Kange, especially near the salt mines; 
and is commonly light gray and mottled in color, sometimes pure wliite, pink, brown or 
greenish, sometimes crystalline. It is also found in a mass of perhaps 20,000 tons at the 
Chhota Kutta oil springs, and in one of perhaps 200,000 tons near the Punnoba oil springs, 
and in some quantity at lioone kee Kussee sulphur pits opposite Dundee on the Indus; 
in each of these cases apparently altered from lime rock by sulphur springs; and there 
may be other similar deposits in the region. 

4. Sulphur .—In each of these cases the gypsum is associated with sulphur, which was 
dug in some quantities twenty years or more ago, from small open pits, and afterwards 
separated from earthy impurities by sublimation. It is said to have been visible in small 
yellow particles in the earth, but cannot now be seen in the rubbish of the old pits. There 
are other sulphur pits near Nakbnnd west of the Indus, and perhaps elsewhere in the 
region. 

5. Alum .—Alum shales, which are also bituminous and pyritous, are found in the 
Eocene rocks of the mountains near Kalabagh, and are largely mined. They are burned 
six or eight months in kilns thirty or forty feet high, and leached in vats of baked clay; 


]’UXJAB OIL PvLGIOX. 


13 


the liquor is boiled in iron pans and mixed witli “ jumsan” (a mixture of sulphate ol' soda 
and salt, an efflorescence on the soil in many parts ol* the low lands), and left to settle and 
crystallize in vats; the crystals are washed with cold water, and melted in an iron pan in 
their own water of crystallization; the liquid is poured into earthen jars where it crystal¬ 
lizes and finally the uncrystallized portion is poured off, the jar is broken apart, and the 
alum is ready for sale. About twenty years a^o its manufacture amounted to more than 
400 tons a year; and it had been carried on by one family for eight generations. 

6. Saltpetre. —Saltpetre is said to be leached from black soil at several places a dozen 
or twenty miles south-west of Kalabagh on the west side of the Indus. 

7. Coal. —Thin beds of brown coal, with the look sometimes of good bituminous coal, 
are found in the Eocene rocks of the Salt Range, especially near Find Uadun Khan; and 
in the alum shales of Kalabagh. These last beds of coal are very thin and irregular; but the 
others sometimes reach a thickness of two feet towards the east, and one of them becomes 
even three feet thick with good coal at one point fifteen miles northeast of Find Dadun 
Khan. The beds, however, would not seem to keep of one thickness for any distance, and 
are on the whole of little value. 

8. Gold. —Gold has been washed from the miocene sands along the Indus, near 
Mukhud and elsewhere; and is found in almost invisible scales. Towards the head¬ 
waters of the Indus the scales are said to be much larger. Thirty years ago there were 
about 300 gold washers between Attok and Kalabagh, and each one earned about ten 
cents a day. They used a pick, shovel, sieve, cradle, wooden platter (for panning out) 
and quicksilver. The gold on the Indus is said to be somewhat whiter than that found 
further east. The washings are richest after heavy rains, that bring down fresh sand 
from the neighboring rocks to the brooks. 

9. Copper. —Small concretionary balls of copper ore, chiefly sulphuret of copper 
(copper glance), commonly covered with green carbonate of copper, from the size of a 
walnut down, are found in the upper part of the Devonian rocks of the Salt Range; but 
no vein of the ore has been discovered. The ore is thought to contain from twelve to 
twenty per cent, of copper; but to be insignificant in amount. 

10. Ii —The ores of iron seem to be almost as small in amount at any one place 

as the copper ore just mentioned. Small balls or crystals of magnetic iron ore from the 
size of a walnut down, are found in a pebble rock at Aluggud through a small space; 

and similar bits of iron are found on the surface of the ground at Gunda, and doubtless 

in many other places. But no place has been found to yield enough to work. 

11. Lead. —Galena is found in small crystals in a limestone near the Keora salt 

mines; but is in such small quantity as to be worthless. 


A. p. s. —VOL. xv. D. 


14 


TOPOGRAPHY OF THE PUNJAB OIL REGION. 


VI. MAP. 

'riie Topography of the map that goes with this paper is based on that of Captain 
(now Colonel) D. G. llobinson’s admirable map of the Kohistan of the Sind Sagur Uoab, 
a map on a scale of one mile to the inch with the steepness of the slopes shown merely 
by depth of shading, and with numerous levels marked in feet. 

As a difference will be noticed in the spelling of the same names in the paper and on 
its map, it may be said that the spelling of the map is according to the rules of romanized 
llindoostanee (or for reducing Hindoostanee to Roman characters), a system very con¬ 
venient for maps, as comparatively brief, and showing the native pronunciation very 
perfectly, while the diacritical marks can be made in the manuscript without trouble. 
On the other hand the spelling of the names in the paper is according to the rules lor 
anglicising Indian names, and is more convenient to print, from the absence of diacritical 
marks, and is more consistent with the rest of the text, and at the same time shows 
passably the common English pronunciation of native words. 

The map is printed from a plate electrotyped direct from a photograph of* the manu¬ 
script by the process of Mr. Julius Bien, Superintendent of the New York Lithographing, 
Engraving and Printing Company. 


2rausactio7is jl?iie7\ Soc. } 'oL Jl'J' — Cl^iate 7. 


ROUGH 
S ECTION 
or Rocks 

NSWER ROCKS; 

ft.traverti n< 

S'NDyP'BLElR’C 
... -135(OLDALLUVIUM, 


OLDER ROCKS; 

■' SIWALIK^ 

-lOOS’FTGRYS’NO RY 

NUMMULITI 


RED AND GREE 

GR’YCLAYSjWfj 
SANDUPEBBLj 
ROCK layers. 


eOOCO’RSE PEBSLEP 

8 aos;^n[)y lime r’K. 
®®°alagao oil 



lllllll.t!! 

I 111 l l l/,l l 

' lllil ' 


980 


STTGRY S'ND R’K. 


BR'NUGR’YSHAlS.i 


1150. 


GRAY Sand R’d 
WITH AFEW La| 
ERS of PEBBL 
ROCK, DARK fid 
SHALES V GR>j 
SHALES. 


DUMA,MANG0( 
105OCHiNNUR (SA 
AlTfI TaR. 
CHHOTA KAjI 
BARA KATTA a 


'l l I I ITI 1 
llil 111 ' 

'"VViV 

11111 

llllllll 

ijl 1111,1 

.iXiXuM 

' ) 'jij i I ill' 

ViV'i'i'l'i'l' 

!ik!a!!:ja„o 


BlUEGRAY LI? 
ROCK WITH Nl 
MuulTES. 


DAULA OIL. 
RATA OTUR o'i 
PanOBA OIL. 


nooor 




iliViii vl'!i 

iV'i'tH.'Ij 


t r I- 




THE GANDAG 
IS PERHAPS i 
TOP OF JABA I 

RED SANDRO 
AND SHALES 


^“’■^Oganda oil. 

I 

1 d 50 BR'NS’N 0 R.U 

WITH NUM'ulT 
BORARI Oil i 
CHHARAT 0| 

1740gr’Ylimer y: 
innnR‘FF' rhlr.sa 


A Geological and Topographical SKETCH MAP of the 

PANJAB OIL REGION, 

BY Benjamin Smith Lyman, for the Public Works Dept.,Govt, of India. Oct. 1871. 


YIELD:— CALS, oil dxy. c.yds aspht. gals.tar 
Fata otur 

bassala. oV, 

liindTgAk. o 

G LNDA (1870).10 

■ CHHARAT..TRACE 

. BORArI.TRACE. 

DAL LA . O 

■ PANOBA. 0''/2 

, ALAGAD. O 

I CHHOyA KATTA . . 0 V 4 . 

BARA KATTA _ O'^/g 

DUMA . O 

IN ALL (ROUGHLY) 11^^i I 388 V 3 

THE other lands have ONLY ^ 
traces OF OIL, TAR OR AS¬ 
PHALT. THE OIL IS DARK GREEN 

and very heavy, 25° of BEAUME 

OR LESS, the asphalt IS EAR- 


Thy, and weighs in all per- s 
haps 2098 tons, the TAR IS 
melted ASPHALT. 

NOTE:— THE TOPOGRA¬ 
PHY IS BASED ON THAT OF CART. 

D. G. ROBINSON’S SHADED MAP OF 
ONE MILE TO THE INCH...'rHE )' 
CONTOUR LINES ARE 230 FEET 
APART IN LEVEL. ROMAN NUME¬ 
RALS SHOW THEIR HEIGHT A- 
BOVE THE SEAj AND ARABIC 
tha t O F CERTAIN SUMMITS. 

£-g Alagad croup. 

ETj ganda ft 
□ OIL LA NDS so called. 

■ It tt mapped. 

O MINEFLAL PITS. • TOWNS. 



I airmadabadU I 30:_ 


SECTION ACROSS THE Basins in the Line A B. 


;ea level 



SEA level 


THE NORTHERN LIME ROCKS ARE PERHAPS NOT OF THE JABA GROUP. THE ROCKS BY THE SOHAN ARE PERHAPS NOT GanDA ROCKS. 


SCALE: sooLoo OF Nature; or 75000 Feet Miles) to an Inch. 


H I I I L H 


-H 


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25 KILOMETRES. 


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50 K. 


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75 K. 


60 M. 

100 K. 


70 m 

125 K. 


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